1. Tariq ibn Ziyad (670-720 CE): Tariq ibn Ziyad is perhaps one of the most renowned Amazigh figures in Islamic history. He led the Muslim conquest of Hispania in 711 CE, crossing the Strait of Gibraltar with an army composed largely of Berber soldiers. His victory laid the foundation for Muslim rule in the Iberian Peninsula, shaping the region’s history for centuries to come.
2. Ibn Tumart (1080-1130 CE): Ibn Tumart was the founder of the Almohad movement, a Berber dynasty that ruled over North Africa and parts of Spain during the 12th and 13th centuries. His teachings emphasized the oneness of God and social justice, garnering widespread support among the Amazigh population and reshaping the political and religious landscape of the Maghreb.
3. Ibn Battuta (1304-1368/69 CE): Born in Tangier, Ibn Battuta was a renowned Muslim scholar and traveler who journeyed across the Islamic world during the 14th century. His extensive travels, documented in his famous work “Rihla” (The Travels), provide valuable insights into the social, cultural, and religious aspects of the medieval Islamic world, including the Amazigh societies he encountered along his routes.
4. Ibn Khaldun (1332-1406 CE): Widely regarded as one of the greatest scholars in the history of sociology, economics, and historiography, Ibn Khaldun was born in Tunis to an Amazigh family. His seminal work, “The Muqaddimah,” laid the groundwork for the philosophy of history and remains a cornerstone of modern sociological thought.
5. Ahmad al-Mansur (1549-1603 CE): Ahmad al-Mansur was a sultan of the Saadi dynasty in Morocco and a patron of the arts, sciences, and Islamic scholarship. Under his rule, Morocco experienced a period of cultural flourishing, with advancements in architecture, literature, and diplomacy. His reign is often referred to as the “Golden Age” of Moroccan history.
6. Fatima al-Fihri (800-880 CE): Fatima al-Fihri was a wealthy Amazigh woman who founded the University of Al Quaraouiyine in Fez, Morocco, in 859 CE. Recognized by UNESCO as the oldest existing, continually operating higher educational institution in the world, Al Quaraouiyine played a pivotal role in the transmission of knowledge and the advancement of learning in the Islamic world.
7. Ibn al-Zubayr (624-692 CE): Ibn al-Zubayr was an influential Islamic scholar and jurist of Amazigh descent who played a significant role in the early development of Islamic jurisprudence. His legal opinions, known as fatwas, continue to be studied and referenced by scholars today.
8. Yusuf ibn Tashfin (c. 1061-1106 CE): Yusuf ibn Tashfin was the founder of the Almoravid dynasty, which ruled over North Africa and Spain during the 11th and 12th centuries. His military campaigns and political leadership expanded the influence of Islam in the region, and his legacy continues to resonate in the history of the Maghreb.
9. Salih ibn Tarif (c. 720-793 CE): Salih ibn Tarif was the founder of the Berghouata dynasty and the spiritual leader of the Kharijite movement in North Africa. His teachings emphasized egalitarianism, social justice, and resistance against oppressive rulers, earning him a revered status among the Amazigh people.
10. Abd al-Mu’min (c. 1094-1163 CE): Abd al-Mu’min was the first Caliph of the Almohad dynasty and played a pivotal role in expanding its influence across North Africa and Al-Andalus (Islamic Iberia). Under his leadership, the Almohads established a powerful empire known for its military prowess, religious orthodoxy, and architectural achievements.
11. Ibn Hazm (994-1064 CE): Born in Cordoba, Ibn Hazm was a prominent Andalusian polymath of Amazigh descent known for his contributions to various fields, including philosophy, theology, jurisprudence, and literature. His works, such as “The Ring of the Dove” and “The Book of Animals,” are celebrated for their intellectual depth and literary elegance.
12. Ziri ibn Manad (d. 971 CE): Ziri ibn Manad was the founder of the Zirid dynasty, which ruled over Ifriqiya (present-day Tunisia and eastern Algeria) as vassals of the Fatimid Caliphate. His reign marked a period of stability and prosperity in the region, characterized by advancements in agriculture, trade, and culture.
13. Abu al-Qasim al-Zayyani (1813-1879 CE): Abu al-Qasim al-Zayyani was a Moroccan scholar, poet, and nationalist who played a significant role in the intellectual and political movements of the 19th century Maghreb. He advocated for educational reform, cultural revival, and resistance against colonial encroachment, inspiring generations of Amazigh activists and thinkers.
14. Ibn Farnas, also known as Abbas Ibn Firnas, was a significant Amazigh polymath who made notable contributions to science and engineering during the Islamic Golden Age. Born in 810 CE in Izn-Rand Onda, Al-Andalus (present-day Spain), Ibn Farnas is primarily remembered for his pioneering work in aviation and optics.
15. Ibn Rushd, also known as Averroes, was a prominent Amazigh philosopher, jurist, and polymath who lived during the Islamic Golden Age. Born in 1126 CE in Cordoba, Al-Andalus (present-day Spain), Ibn Rushd made significant contributions to various fields, including philosophy, medicine, law, and theology. He is best known for his commentary on the works of Aristotle and his efforts to reconcile Greek philosophy with Islamic theology.

These influential Amazigh figures exemplify the rich cultural and intellectual heritage of the Amazigh people within the broader context of Islamic civilization. Their contributions have left an indelible mark on the history, religion, and culture of North Africa and the Islamic world as a whole, highlighting the enduring legacy of the Amazigh people throughout the centuries.

• The Kingdom of Numidia and King Masinissa (circa 202 BCE – 148 BCE)
  One of the most prominent Berber kingdoms of antiquity was Numidia, located in what is now Algeria and Tunisia. King Masinissa, a legendary figure in Berber history, was instrumental in uniting various Berber tribes and creating a powerful kingdom. He played a crucial role in the Punic Wars between Rome and Carthage, skillfully navigating alliances and diplomacy. His vision and leadership laid the foundation for the prosperity of Numidia, fostering a sense of unity among the Berber people.
• The Kingdom of Mauretania and King Juba II (circa 25 BCE – 23 CE)
  Mauretania, situated in modern-day Morocco and parts of Algeria, was a kingdom of great significance in the ancient world. King Juba II, a philosopher-king, ruled this kingdom during a period of cultural and intellectual flourishing. His reign witnessed the development of arts, sciences, and philosophy, as he established close ties with the Roman Empire, fostering a rich exchange of knowledge. Juba II’s enlightened rule remains a testament to the potential for intellectual achievement in Berber societies.
• Garamantes Kingdom, Garama: The Garamantes were a Saharan Amazigh people who inhabited the region now known as Libya. Garama was their capital, and the kingdom is noted for its innovative agricultural techniques, including an extensive underground irrigation system (foggaras) that allowed them to thrive in the arid Sahara.
• The Almoravid Dynasty and Yusuf ibn Tashfin (circa 11th century CE)
  The Almoravid Dynasty, founded by Berber leader Yusuf ibn Tashfin, had a profound impact on North Africa and the Iberian Peninsula. With a mission to spread Islam and unify Muslim territories, Yusuf ibn Tashfin led the Almoravids to conquer vast territories. His leadership not only expanded the influence of Berber culture and Islam but also influenced the architecture and art of the region, including the iconic Alhambra in Spain.
• Almohad Empire (circa 1121-1269 CE): Ibn Tumart (circa 1080-1130 CE): Ibn Tumart was the founder of the Almohad movement, which aimed to reform Islamic practices and unify North Africa under Almohad rule. His teachings and leadership led to the establishment of the Almohad Empire, which had a lasting impact on the region.
• Marinid Dynasty (circa 1244-1465 CE): Abu Yusuf Yaqub al-Mansur (circa 1286-1307 CE): Al-Mansur was a Marinid sultan known for his patronage of art and culture. His reign saw the construction of important architectural works, such as the Great Mosque of Taza and the Madrasa Abu al-Hasan in Fes, contributing to the flourishing of Marinid art and culture.

These are just a few examples of ancient Amazigh kingdoms and leaders who played pivotal roles in the history of North Africa. The Amazigh people have a long and diverse history with numerous leaders and dynasties that have left their mark on the region.

In this article, we have highlighted the top 8 Amazigh women who have made a significant impact on history:

Tin Hinan: Tin Hinan was a legendary queen of the Tuareg people, who lived in the Sahara desert around the 4th century CE. She is revered by the Tuareg as the founder of their civilization and is considered the mother of all Tuareg.

Dihya: was a 7th-century warrior queen who led the Berber resistance against the Arab invasion of North Africa. She is revered as a symbol of resistance and independence by the Berber people.

Lalla Fatma N’Soumer: Lalla Fatma N’Soumer was an Algerian nationalist and leader of the Amazigh movement in the early 20th century. She is credited with revitalizing the Amazigh cultural and political identity and promoting the use of the Tamazight language.

Zohra Drif: Zohra Drif is an Algerian politician and former member of the National Liberation Front (FLN) who played a key role in the Algerian War of Independence. She was the first woman to be elected to the Algerian parliament and has been a leading advocate for women’s rights in the country.

Fadhma Aït Mansour: Fadhma Aït Mansour was an Algerian resistance fighter during the French colonial period. She is remembered for her bravery and tenacity in the face of torture and abuse by the French authorities.

Fatima al-Fihri: Fatima al-Fihri was a Moroccan woman who founded the University of Al Quaraouiyine in 859 CE, making it one of the oldest universities in the world. She is remembered for her dedication to education and her contributions to the intellectual and cultural development of Morocco.

Taos Amrouche: Taos Amrouche was an Algerian writer and composer who played a key role in the revival of Amazigh culture and language in the 20th century. She is remembered for her contributions to Amazigh literature and music and for her efforts to promote Amazigh identity.

Zohra Sehili: Zohra Sehili was an Algerian activist and founding member of the Algerian Women’s Union. She played a key role in the Algerian independence movement and was actively involved in the negotiations with the French authorities.

These Amazigh women have made significant contributions to their communities and to the larger history of North Africa. Their stories serve as an inspiration to future generations and remind us of the strength and resilience of the Amazigh people.

Numidia and Mauritania were ancient North African states located in what is now Algeria and Morocco. The Amazigh, or Berber, people inhabited these regions and had a long and rich history of powerful kings and queens who ruled over their respective territories. Here is a list of some of the most famous Amazigh kings and queens of Numidia and Mauritania:

Masinissa: Masinissa was the first king of Numidia, a state located in what is now modern-day Algeria. He reigned from 202 BC to 148 BC and is known for his military prowess and for his role in the Roman Republic’s victory over Carthage in the Second Punic War.

Jugurtha: Jugurtha was the king of Numidia from 118 BC to 105 BC. He was known for his ambitious and aggressive expansionist policies, which led to conflict with the Roman Republic. Jugurtha was eventually defeated and captured by the Romans, and Numidia became a Roman province.

Cleopatra Selene II: Cleopatra Selene II was the daughter of Ptolemy VIII and Cleopatra III, rulers of the Ptolemaic Kingdom in Egypt. She married Juba II, the king of Mauretania, and together they ruled over a vast territory that included modern-day Morocco and parts of Algeria.

Bocchus I: Bocchus I was the king of Mauretania from 110 BC to 81 BC. He was known for his military skills and for his alliance with Rome against the Numidian king Jugurtha. Bocchus was also known for his wealth and for his lavish lifestyle.

Bocchus II: Bocchus II was the son of Bocchus I and ruled Mauretania from 81 BC to 46 BC. He was known for his diplomatic skills and for his successful attempts to maintain Mauretania’s independence from Rome.

Ptolemy of Mauretania: Ptolemy of Mauretania was the son of Juba II and Cleopatra Selene II. He ruled Mauretania from 23 BC to 40 AD and is known for his cultural achievements, including the construction of the city of Caesarea Mauretaniae and the establishment of a library in the city.

Tin Hinan: Tin Hinan was a queen of the Tuareg people, a Berber ethnic group that inhabited the Sahara desert region. She is revered by the Tuareg as the founder of their civilization and is considered one of the most powerful Amazigh queens in history.

Dihya: Dihya was a warrior queen who ruled over a large territory in what is now modern-day Algeria and Tunisia. She is known for her resistance against the Arab conquest of North Africa in the 7th century and is revered by the Amazigh people as a symbol of resistance and independence.

Zaynab an-Nafzawiyyah: Zaynab an-Nafzawiyyah was a queen of the Zenata, a Amazigh tribal confederation that inhabited what is now Morocco. She is known for her intelligence and political acumen and is credited with uniting the Zenata tribes under her rule.

These are just a few of the many famous Amazigh kings and queens who have played a significant role in the history of Numidia and Mauritania. Their legacies continue to be celebrated and remembered by the Amazigh people today.

The first wave of Arabization in North Africa began with the Arab conquest of the region in the 7th and 8th centuries. The Arab armies, under the leadership of Uqba ibn Nafi, swept across the region, bringing with them the religion of Islam and the Arabic language. Many Amazigh tribes converted to Islam, but some resisted the Arabization process and maintained their indigenous language and cultural practices.

One of the most prominent Amazigh resistance leaders was Queen Dihya, also known as Kahina. She was the ruler of a confederation of Amazigh tribes in what is now modern-day Algeria, and she is remembered as a symbol of Amazigh resistance against Arabization. Queen Dihya led her forces against the Arab armies, and although she was ultimately defeated, her bravery and determination inspired other Amazigh leaders to continue the fight against Arabization.

Despite the efforts of Queen Dihya and other resistance leaders, the Arabization process continued throughout the region. The Amazigh language and culture faced significant challenges as Arabization spread, and many Amazigh people were forced to assimilate or face persecution. However, the Amazigh people have never completely surrendered their language and culture, and they have continued to resist Arabization throughout the centuries.

In the modern era, the Amazigh people have made significant progress in their struggle for recognition and preservation of their language and culture. In 2002, the Moroccan government recognized Tamazight, the Amazigh language, as an official language alongside Arabic. In 2011, the Tunisian government also recognized the Amazigh language and culture, and established a national council to promote and preserve it.

Despite these efforts, the Amazigh language and culture still face challenges in the region. Many Amazigh people, particularly in Algeria, feel that their language and culture are not adequately recognized or supported by the government. There have also been instances of discrimination and persecution of Amazigh people for their language and cultural practices.

The Amazigh people have a long and rich history in North Africa, and their language and culture have had a significant impact on the region. The struggle for recognition and preservation of their language and culture continues to this day, and figures like Queen Dihya serve as a reminder of the resilience and determination of the Amazigh people in the face of Arabization and other challenges.

The data indicate the close genetic relationship, at a mtDNA level, between Northern African and Iberian horse populations commonly known as the barb, with a slight genetic influence from the British horse but without any gene presence from the Arabian horse.

“The number of mtDNA haplotypes shared between Barb and Iberian horses would support the classical hypothesis suggesting that the ancestral Iberian horse population would basically be North African in origin (Aparicio 1944; Sotillo and Serrano 1985), archaeological findings and cave paintings suggest that light horses with convex head profiles (characteristic of present Barb and Southern Iberian horses) have been the most frequent in the entire Iberian territory (Aparicio 1944).”

This evidence allows us to reject the hypothesis of an introgression of Arab horses during the Muslim period after 700 CE as the sole explanation for the present situation of Iberian horses. The Muslim people who took part in the invasion of the Iberian Peninsula were small in number with respect to the existing human population. The number of horses brought over by the Muslims has been estimated also to be small, which means that most of what came in the “Islamic” narrations about the entry of more that 50,000 Arab horses -during the 8th century- into Iberia is in fact baseless.

This geographical clusterization and extensive genetic diversity, together with the aforementioned archaeological findings, are consistent with the presence of wild mares for domestication in this geographical area (Jansen et al. 2002). However, our results do not clarify without uncertainty the size and direction of the gene flow between them. In this respect, the introgression of Iberian horses into North Africa has happened, at least, from Roman times to early 20th century. The basis genetic differentiation between Northern and Southern Iberian horse groups is that matrilines related to the Northern African cluster are the most common in Iberian horse breeds, regardless of geography or phenotype.

Mano led the Tumast Culture) Liberation Front (FLT), one coalition among the various Tuareg resistance groups currently combined under the recently reformed Coordinated Armed resistance (CRA). In April 1995 Mano’s coalition had refused to agree to a Peace Accord with the government of Niger that was signed by another Tuareg coalition, the Organization of Armed Resistance (ORA). Mano’s allies remained opposed to the Peace Accord and continued to maintain their base of resistance in the Tenere Desert east of Agadez.

Mano, born in a nomadic setting and raised at Tidene, a home well area(2) in the south-central Air Mountains, received a diploma from the public high school in Agadez. He befriended some of the first American Peace Corps volunteers teaching English there in the 1960s and 1970s, as well as most of the European and American missionaries and representatives of non-governmental organizations working in northern Niger. He worked for a time with the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) in Niamey, and was well-known among the American community in Niger. As a young man, Mano traveled to the United States, stayed with some of his Peace Corps friends, enrolled in an undergraduate degree program in folklore at Indiana University, and learned to speak near-perfect American English with a Midwest accent. He was keenly interested in anthropology and visited New York to talk with Margaret Mead about the Ph.D. program at Columbia, but later decided to pursue a degree in political science at the Sorbonne.

It was in Paris at the Sorbonne where he met and later married his wife Odile, an anthropology student who came with him to Agadez to help him establish a tourist business in the early 1970s. Several years later they had two sons. Mano and Odile’s tourist agency, Temet Voyages, began with two Land Rovers and several dedicated family workers, taking Europeans and Americans on trips through the vast Tenere Desert and the rugged Air Mountains, stopping to meet Twareg families and sample homemade food. Mano loved to introduce foreigners to his people and teach them about Tuareg culture. By the mid-1980s, Mano’s tourist business was a thriving success, and he had two dozen or more Range Rovers at his disposal, provided employment to scores of Nigeriens, and not only brought in a significant amount of business for hotels, restaurants, and merchants in the north, but also contributed substantially to Niger’s gross domestic product. Temet Voyages, partly because it was so efficiently organized by Odile and Mano, and partly because of Mano’s easy-going, friendly and gregarious personality, was frequented by thousands of tourists from many countries, a number of whom were wealthy and politically influential.

When I met him in 1976, Mano continued to pursue his interest in promoting Tuareg history and culture, and he and Odile were collecting a library of scholarly books, articles, and archival data on the Twareg people. One of Mano’s passions was to make a film showing Tuareg life-ways; another was to write a book about his people. Both his dreams came to fruition later in his life. Mano coordinated all the arrangements for the Saharan portions of “The Sheltering Sky,” a 1990 Hollywood film based on Paul Bowles’ novel, starring Debra Winger. Although a couple of the cultural details of the Agadez portion were somewhat compromised by the European tastes of the film’s Italian director, the film is the first to bring to American viewers the faces and voices of actual Twareg people, many of them Mano’s family and friends, as well as the cultural complexity and exotic beauty of life in Agadez, the remote and historic capital city of northwestern Niger. In his book “Tuareg, la Tragedie,” published in 1992, Mano put some of his deepest feelings into writing when he described the warmth and strength of his childhood upbringing and family, the effects of the colonial legacy on him personally and on the Tuaregs as a whole, the cruelties imposed by European history and the victimization of the Tuareg people as a result of it, the special meaning that Tuareg “Tumast” has had for him, and his hope of helping salvage it for the Tuareg people. Finally, in a Geo made-for-television film about Tuareg resistance, “Desert Prince,” that appeared in 1994, Mano was the central figure who discussed in detail some of the problems faced by his people and the reasons why he and his followers had decided to fight the overwhelming injustices and atrocities imposed upon the Tuareg population.

Those who remember Mano personally will remember his charismatic personality, his easy way with humor, his intelligence and wit, and his undeniable leadership skills. Mano was as comfortable in the most humble settings as in the most aristocratic. He could mount a camel as easily as engage in clever repartee at a cocktail party. He was a magnet for people, and had thousands of friends and admirers. Mano was helpful and generous to many. He had a strong vision of hope for the Tuareg people and a brave heart to pursue his goal patiently. Not everyone agreed with his politics, but he remained to the end eclectic and romantic, dead set to stand his ground and fight for what he considered the true path, for a solution that was visible and tangible, not just in writing. As the husband of a French citizen, Mano could have given up the struggle and retired safely to France, but he chose what he believed was the nobler path, the destiny of a warrior poet.

Mano was killed on his way to peace talks with the Nigerien Prime Minister in Niamey, along with two Twaregs, a non-Twareg Nigerien pilot, and a French journalist, in a Cessna 337 that crashed shortly after take-off east of the remote Air Mountains north of Agadez. The catastrophe is still believed by some Twaregs and others to have been a result of sabotage, even though an international team of investigators visited the crash site and declared it to be an accident. Some sources say the airplane’s wing may have struck a tree or rock during take-off in the desert. Mano’s violent death is a tragedy that has inflicted a deep wound in the peace process. Mano was fluent in French and English; he was well-educated and highly knowledgeable about international relations and technology. Mano was in a uniquely significant position to evaluate and defend the Tuareg people’s rights.

Just before Mano’s death, according to one source, the Nigerien government had terminated the April 1995 Peace Accord because it felt that Tuaregs were “not maintaining security in the north.” Tuareg sources say that the north has been unstable in the wake of both peace agreements, and that Tuareg civilians have sporadically been attacked by either Nigerien soldiers or military-supported Arab militia members.

The brutality of Mano’s own death, believed by some to have been instigated by either France or Niger because Mano was holding out for protection and better treatment of the Tuareg people, forces us to consider the reasons why Mano and other Tuaregs chose to oppose the Peace Accord. Many Tuaregs were unsatisfied with the April Peace Accord because neither the previous Peace Pact which Mano signed in October 1994, nor the Peace Accord signed by the ORA in April 1995 had resulted in any improvements for Tuareg civilians living within Niger’s boundaries, particularly in terms of security against retaliatory attacks by the Nigerien military and Arab militias allegedly supported by the military, as well as practical and sorely needed reforms in democratic governance, more equitable Tuareg representation in government posts and the national military, and equal health care and education for rural people in the north of Niger, which is inhabited largely by Tuareg people. Mano, along with many other Tuaregs, had observed that, in spite of the Accords, sporadic retaliatory acts of violence continue to be committed on innocent citizens by agents of the Nigerien army. Mano also decried the fact that, in spite of what the Accords prescribed, nothing has been done economically or politically to empower and rehabilitate Tuareg populations in the north, weakened and marginalized by decades of political neglect and economic deprivation (discussed in his book).

The “Tuareg problem” as reported in the Western press has often been described as an “ethnic conflict,” but some Nigerien government officials, as well as some Tuaregs, say that, although there is a historic basis for ethnic hostility, the roots of the current violence are essentially economic. Other Tuareg say that the way their people have been treated -as a population- could only be explained in terms of ethnic hatred. Niger is one of the world’s poorest countries, and the Tuaregs have suffered greater deprivations than other groups because of the disastrous setbacks they suffered as a result of two major droughts in the 1970s and 1980s. Tuareg have been marginalized politically by dominant Songhay and Hausa groups, living mainly in the west and south of Niger, because they are largely nomadic and live in areas of the country that are remote from the capital at Niamey and from most policy-making centers.

One of the major demands of nearly all Tuareg leaders has been a call for development of the north, to bring it more in line with the rest of the country in terms of sustainable subsistence, education, health care, and participation in governance. Although many donor organizations have come forward with funds to implement new development programs in Niger, the Nigerien government has not yet promoted or approved any that would ameliorate the miserable conditions in the north. Since the famous Niger Range and Livestock Project (USAID) implemented at Tahoua and Abalak in the late 1970s and through the mid-80s, which effectively benefited 18 nomadic families’ pastoral subsistence, no projects have been approved by the Government of Niger to help the thousands of impoverished pastoral nomads in Niger’s northwest regions, and a significant number of these have since been displaced by famine, livestock losses, and political turmoil.

Since the coup d’etat in January 1996, the military leaders have requested international aid, ostensibly to take care of some 700,000 people currently “at risk” of famine in Niger’s northwest, insisting that most of these are farmers. Alternatively, 400,000 people have been reported moving into cities and towns from nomadic northwest regions (which would be mostly Tuaregs), and an American working for the Famine Early Warning System (FEWS) at Niamey admits that “the pastoralists are being squeezed.” The US and France withdrew aid after the coup to protest the overthrow of the democratic government, but France has begun to resume aid to Niger. Many fear that any food aid sent to Niger for famine victims would be illegally offloaded and sold to Nigeria or elsewhere for the profit of government leaders, as allegedly happened during the last two droughts, and that little or none of the food aid would reach the hungry nomads.

The intense violent conflict between Twareg resistance armies and the government of Niger dates back only about four years, but the conditions that provoked it were brewing over a long period of time. One of the most solemn values in Tuareg society is patience; but when Twareg patience wears thin, Tuaregs are forced to seek a solution. Tuaregs have kept their patience now for a hundred years since their people were violently subdued by French colonizers, rising up occasionally to protest their treatment under colonial and independence governments. The present generations have survived only to see their children in tatters, starving, forcibly deprived of equal opportunities with the rest of Niger’s people, violated, and murdered.

Mano’s passing is a signal to Tuareg leaders, scholars, and spokesmen to abandon their anger and frustration over political differences within their ranks and combine their strengths to pursue a real solution for their people, one that will take the national government to task for its lack of action, that will recruit the aid of American, European and other foreign governments to help the Tuareg people out of their misery, and will gain a democratic voice with all the basic rights and privileges that democratic nations enjoy. Mano worked hard for justice, human rights, and to protect Tuareg culture. He was a capable leader, one who could bring people together in agreement, and had he succeeded in making his trip to Niamey to talk with the Prime Minister, he may have brought the Tuareg people one step closer to equal rights and fair treatment. His steadfast vision will serve as a powerful inspiration to others seeking a solution for the Tuaregs.

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Choukri soon began to read, write and enjoy books written by Arab and French authors and published his first short story in 1966, (Violence on the Beach). he often wrote articles, short stories in cafe and bars.

Mohamed Choukri met the expatriate writer and composer Paul Bowles, who recognized his great talent as a writer. Bowles encouraged his writing and translated, with Choukri’s assistance, “For Bread Alone”, in 1972,  which made his international success and translated into more than 10 languages, yet remained banned for years in Morocco for freely breaking the deep-rooted taboos in such a conservative society. 

In addition to ‘Bread alone’ Choukri had published several other novels cush as “Zaman Al Akhtaa (Time of Mistakes, 1992) and Al Souq Al Dakhili (The Inner Market, 1985); two collections of short stories: Majnoun Al Ward (Madman of the Roses, 1979), Al Khaima (The Tent, 1985); a play: Al Saada (Happiness, 1994); a series of his reflections on literature: Ghiwayat Al Shahrour Al Abyad (The Temptation of the White Blackbird, 1998).

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Mohamed Choukri passed away on November 15, 2003, at the age of 68. after was diagnosed with throat cancer. Nevertheless, he continued to smoke and drink and embrace the company of his colleagues. A memorial in his honor was held in Tangier several weeks after his burial, organized by his friends and attended by many admirers of his life and accomplishments. 

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Located around 50 km away from Tangier, Morocco (ancient Tingis), it is possible that the Mzoura burial site is the same one that Roman general Quintus Sertorius had been shown by locals, during a visit to the Kingdom of Mauretania in 82 BC, by the end of the reign of King Bocchus I, or at the start of his son King Mastanesosus’s reign.

Sertorius, according to a legend narrated by Greek-Roman historian Lucius Plutarch, excavated the tomb and found the body of the giant Antaeus, son of Gaia and Poseidon, buried there. Antaeus (or Ɛanti in Tamazight) is also known to Greek mythology through the 12 Labors of Hercules. Dumbfounded, Sertorius, according to the story, performed a sacrifice, refilled the tomb, and joined a local ritual of veneration.

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This story, despite being apocryphal, at least in some of its details, confirms two things: first, that Ancient North Africans engaged in ancestor worship, since there are many similar burial mounds throughout North Africa. Secondly, that the person buried there was an important tribal war chief or king.

Spanish archaeologist César Luis de Montalban started excavating the site in 1935. His work however was interrupted when he was arrested during the Spanish Civil war, and he never published his findings. It is expected that the site would have contained burial and funerary chambers, just like the ones that were found at similar, though smaller burial mounds in Sidi
Slimane and Sidi Allal el Bahraoui, Morocco.

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Archeologist Miquel Tarradell excavated what was left of the site in the 1950s. He also discovered another smaller stone ring with 16 monoliths nearby. Earlier surveys had suggested that the Mzoura cromlech was somehow linked to the civilizations that built Stonehenge and similar structures in Europe. This hypothesis was however rejected by Tarradell, and later also by Gabriel Camps, who both concluded the mound and its stone ring were built as a burial site, for an ancient Amazigh Moorish chief or king by locals, using local knowledge.

The incomplete excavation by De Montalban damaged the site, and later Islamist fundamentalists vandalized and destroyed some of the monoliths around it.

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Many other burial sites in Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Libya still await excavation.

The distribution of the largest burial mounds, more numerous and bigger in the Western side of the Maghreb (Morocco, Western Algeria), compared to the ones in the Eastern Maghreb, also highlights cultural differences in Ancient North Africa, and together with other data gathered from other sites, such as the ancient city of Lixus, seems to point to the emergence of a distinct political and cultural entity in the Western Maghreb, characterized by a complex social and political hierarchy, known to the Greeks as Maurusia, and to the Romans as the Kingdom of Mauretania.

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To those who have never heard of him before today, Kaddour kadi was a professor of French and Theoretical Linguistics at the University of Fes (Morocco) and has always been active in the Tamazight area.

In Morocco where the teaching of Amazigh language ‘Tamazight’ was still not permitted in any school or university, professors such as Kaddour Cadi managed to carry out research in Amazigh studies with many of their graduate students.

Professor Kadi was a great advocate for the Amazigh language, in a paper written about the importance of the mother tongue, Kadi Kaddour explain that, 

“..you can learn as many languages as you want but start first with your mother tongue”

has published about twenty articles on Tamazight, some of which were presented at international conferences, and has written a book on Riffian verbal system.

A founder of the “Etudes Linguistiques” research group of the University of Fes, Professor Kadi was a paragon of dedication to the promotion of the Amazigh language and culture in North Africa and Europe.

In addition to his academic work and presentations in professional meetings, a two-month invitation to the Netherlands [hosted by the Department of General Linguistics of the University of Amsterdam] allowed him to give a series of conferences and interviews.

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During his stay, he elaborated a number of projects in collaboration with the Ministry of Education to implement the teaching of Tamazight in that country.

Although Professor Kadi has left us, his work and words will remain an invaluable source of knowledge and inspiration. He will always be cherished in our hearts. As an homage to his significant scholarly contributions, commitment, and devotion to the advancement of the Amazigh language.

Bibliography: 

· Cadi, Kaddour. 1981. “Le verbe en tarifit: Formes, structures et valence.” [The verb in Tarifit: Forms, structures and valance. Franz.]Diss. Paris III. 511 S. plus corpus 133 S.
· Cadi, Kaddour . 1985. “Valence et dérivation verbale en tarifit.” [Valance and verbal derivation in Tarifit. Franz.] Awal 1: 11-123.
· Cadi, Kaddour. 1987. “Prépositions et rections en tarifit (Nord marocaine).” [Prepositions et rections in Tarifit (northern Moroccan. Franz.] EDB 3: 67-75.
· Cadi, Kaddour. 1987. Système verbal rifain: Form et sense (Nord-Marocain). [Rifan verbal system: Form and meaning (Northern Moroccan). Franz.] (Études ethno-linguistiques Maghreb-Sahara, 6.) Paris: SELAF. 178S., Tabellen, bibliography.
· Cadi, Kaddour. 1989. “Structure de la phrase et ordre des mots en tarifit.” [Structure of the phrase and order of the word order in Tarifit. Franz.] EDB 6: 41-59.
· Cadi, Kaddour. 1990. “Pour un retour d’exil du sujet lexical en linguistique berbère.” [In favour of a return from the exile of the lexical subject matter of Berber linguisitcs. Franz.] Awal édition spreciale: 233-242.
· Cadi, Kaddour . 1990. “Questions de syntaxe en berbère tarifit.” [Questions of syntax in Tarifit Berber. Franz.] EDB 7: 182-184.
· Cadi, Kaddour. 1990. Transitivité et diathèse en tarifit: Analyse de quelques relations de dépendance lexicales et syntaxiques. [Transitivity and diathesis in Tarifit: Analysis of some relations depending on lexics and syntax. Franz.] Paris: Sorbonne Nouvelle. 524S.
· Cadi, Kaddour . 1991. “Sujet et prédications non verbale en rifain.” [Subject and non-verbal predication in Rifan. Franz.] EDB 8: 79-95.
· Cadi, Kaddour . 1993. “Une “cause” peut en cacher une autre ou le problème d’agentivité en berbère.” In À la croisée des études libyco-berbère: Mélanges offerts à Paulette Galand-Pernet et Lionel Galand, hrsgb. v. J. Drouin und A. Roth, S. 177-194.